DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct Speech

Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation.

Examples

• She says, "What time will you be home?"
• She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
• "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
• John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

Indirect Speech

Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

'Say' and 'tell'

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.

'Talk' and 'speak'

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.

Examples.

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
PRESENT TENSE
PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE
He said, “I write a letter” She said, “he goes to school daily” They said, “we love our country” He said, “he does not like computer”	He said that he wrote a letter. He said that she went to school daily. They said that they loved their country He said that he did not like computer.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS
He said, “he is listening to the music” She said, “I am washing my clothes” They said, “we are enjoying the weather” I said, “it is raining” She said, “I am not laughing”	He said that he was listening to the music. She said that she was washing her clothes. They said that they were not enjoying the weather. She said that she was not laughing.
PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT
She said, “he has finished his work” He said, “I have started a job” I said, “she have eaten the meal” They said, “we have not gone to New York.	She said that he had finished his work. He said that he had started a job. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said that they had not gone to New York.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock” She said, “It has been raining for three days.” I said, “She has been working in this office since 2007”	He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock. She said that it been raining for three days. I said that she had been working in this office since 2007.
PAST TENSE
PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT
He said to me, “you answered correctly” John said, “they went to cinema” He said, “I made a table” She said, “I didn’t buy a car”	He said to me that I had answered correctly. John said that they had gone to cinema. He said that he had made a table. She said that she had not bought a car.
PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
They said, “we were enjoying the weather” He said to me, “ I was waiting for you” I said, “It was raining” She said, “I was not laughing”	They said that they had been enjoying. He said to me that he had been waiting for me. I said that it had been raining. She said that she not been laughing.
PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (tense does not change)
She said, “She had visited a doctor” He said, “I had started a business” I said, “she had eaten the meal” They said, “we had not gone to New York.	She said that she had visited a doctor. He said that he had started a business. I said that she had eaten the meal. They said they had not gone to New York.
FUTURE TENSE
FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE WILL changes into WOULD
He said, “I will study the book” She said, “I will buy a computer” They said to me, “we will send you gifts” I said, “I will not take the exam”	He said that he would study the book. She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said that I would not take the exam.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE WILL BE changes into WOULD BE
I said to him, “ I will be waiting for him” She said,” I will be shifting to new home” He said, “I will be working hard” He said, “he will not be flying kite”	I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said that he would be working hard. She said that he would not be flying kites.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE
He said, “I will have finished the work” She said, “they will have passed the examination” He said, “I will have gone”	He said that he would have finished the work. She said that they would have passed the examination. He said that he would have gone.

Note: The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though its reporting verb belongs to past tense.

Examples.
       Direct speech: He said, “Mathematics is a science”
       Indirect Speech: He said that mathematics is a science.
       Direct speech: He said, “Sun rises in east”
       Indirect Speech: He said that sun rises in east. (Tense didn’t change because reported   speech is a universal truth thought its reporting verb belongs to past tense)

Tense Changes When Using Reported Speech

Normally, the tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech:
She said, "I am tired." = She said that she was tired.

Phrase in Direct Speech	Equivalent in Reported Speech
Simple present	Simple past
"I always drink coffee", she said	She said that she always drank coffee.
Present continuous	Past continuous
"I am reading a book", he explained.	He explained that he was reading a book
Simple past	Past perfect
"Bill arrived on Saturday", he said.	He said that Bill had arrived on Saturday.
Present perfect	Past perfect
"I have been to Spain", he told me.	He told me that he had been to Spain.
Past perfect	Past perfect
"I had just turned out the light," he explained.	He explained that he had just turned out the light.
Present perfect continuous	Past perfect continuous
They complained, "We have been waiting for hours".	They complained that they had been waiting for hours.
Past continuous	Past perfect continuous
"We were living in Paris", they told me.	They told me that they had been living in Paris.
Future	Present conditional
"I will be in Geneva on Monday", he said.	He said that he would be in Geneva on Monday.
Future continuous	Conditional continuous
She said, "I'll be using the car next Friday".	She said that she would be using the car next Friday.

You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.

• He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
• We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to:

• We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.
• She said, "I might bring a friend to the party." = She said that she might bring a friend to the party.

Indirect speech of imperative sentence.

A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence.
For example,
     •  Open the door.
     •  Please help me.
     •  Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.

Examples.
           Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”
           Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.
           Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”
           Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.
           Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”
           Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.
           Direct speech: He said, “open the door”
           Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.
           Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”
           Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.
           Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”
           Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.
           Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”
           Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.
           Direct speech: The teacher said to him, “Get out”
           Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.

Indirect speech of exclamatory sentences.

Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory sentence.
For example.
             •  Hurrah! We won the match.
             •  Alas! I failed the test.
             •  Wow! What a nice shirt it is.

To change such sentences, the words “exclaimed with joy” or “exclaimed with sorrow” or “exclaimed with wonder” is added in the reporting verb depending upon the nature of exclamatory sentence in indirect speech.
Examples.
     Direct speech: He said, “Hurrah! I won a prize”
     Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won a prize.
     Direct speech: She said, “Alas! I failed in exam”
     Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she failed in the exam.
     Direct speech: John said, “Wow! What a nice shirt it is”
     Indirect Speech: John exclaimed with wonder that it was a nice shirt.
     Direct speech: She said, “Hurrah! I am selected for the job”
     Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with joy that she was selected for the job.
     Direct speech: He said, “Oh no! I missed the train”
     Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the train.
     Direct speech: They said, “Wow! What a pleasant weather it is”
     Indirect Speech:  They exclaimed with wonder that it was a pleasant weather.

http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/direct-and-indirect-speech/

http://www.studyandexam.com/indirect-speech-for-tense.html

http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/tense-changes-when-using-reported-speech/

http://www.studyandexam.com/indirect-speech-imperative-exclamatory.html

Modal auxalary

           Modal Auxilary

             A modal verb (also 'modal', 'modal auxiliary verb', 'modal auxiliary') is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality – that is, likelihood, ability, permission, and obligation. Examples include the English verbs can/could, may/might, must, will/would, and shall/should.

Examples of modal auxiliary verbs

Before we look at some of the possible meanings of modal auxiliary verbs we need to have some idea of what constitutes a modal in English and where they occur in a sentence. A few more examples should enable us to answer the second of these points fairly quickly and easily - the modals are in bold:

• He should be here by now.
• I could swim quite well when I was younger.
• You mustn't blame yourself for this.
• You might have discussed it with me first.
• You can't be serious!
• Could you open the window please?
• Must you make so much noise?
• She had to take her brother along with her.
• We ought to be going.

It should be clear from these examples that the modal verb occupies the first position in verb phrase, coming before any other auxiliary verb (like have or be) and the main lexical verb.
In questions the modal verb is simply inverted with the subject of the sentence as in examples 6 and 7 and it also carries the negative particle not (3rd and 5th examples).
The subject of the sentence has no effect on the form of the modal since almost in all cases they do not change at all.
So, a modal verb is quite simple as far as its form and position in various types of sentence are concerned; but what exactly are the modal verbs in English? The chart below lists the main modal auxiliaries that you are likely to meet and divides them into two categories pure modals and semi-modals, although in most cases the distinction is merely formal and their meanings are not affected by this division.

Pure modals	Semi-modals
can	ought to
could	has/have (got) to
may	be able to
might
shall
should
will
would
need

need is a special verb since as an auxiliary it is almost always negative and it is also a lexical verb as in sentences like he needs to speak to you now, while it acts as a modal verb in sentences such as you needn't come to work tomorrow where it has the same meaning as don't have to.

The forms of pure modals

The main characteristics of the pure modals are:

• they never change their form irrespective of the subject of the sentence
  e.g. he can swim, not *he cans swim
• following on from the above feature, they do not change to show past tense
  e.g. she had to leave not *she musted leave
• they all carry the negative of the sentence by the addition of not/n't
  e.g. I can't remember not *I don't can remember
• they all form questions by inversion with the subject of the sentence.
  e.g. should I stay?
• they are all followed by the base form of the verb without the addition of to
  e.g. he can swim not *he can to swim

The forms of semi-modals

You will notice that this type of modal is made up of two or more separate words, the last one invariably being to. They are all modal in meaning but not in form as they behave differently in a sentence from the pure modals. It is perhaps best to think of the semi-modals in the form with the to infinitive that is given in the table rather than thinking of them as modals that need to + base form. We need to look at the form of each individual semi-modal separately.

Be able to

We use this semi-modal to express possibility or the ability to do something, but unlike the pure modals, be able to has a full range of tenses and also needs to inflect to show agreement with its subject. For example:

• He is able to offer you the best price possible.
• We were able to get in to see the film.
• They haven't been able to find the missing document.
• So, you aren't able to help.

Notice that the negative is carried either by the be element or the auxiliary verb that is closest to the subject of the sentence. It can also be accompanied by any of the pure modals:

• I will be able to see you after lunch.
• They might not be able to put us up for the night.

Has/have (got) to

This is used to express necessity or obligation to do something and shares some of the features of be able to discussed above. The have element of the form has to change to agree with its subject. Although it is normally used in the present tense, it also has its own past (had to) and can be used with pure modals to show the future or the attitude of the speaker:

• They have to be more punctual.
• He has to take responsibility for the accident.
• I had to help my father repair his car.
• We will have to put this off until tomorrow.
• You shouldn't have to suffer in silence.
• You don't have to come if you don't want to.
• He didn't have to do all the shopping.

From these few examples it should be clear that the negative not again attaches itself to the auxiliary verb (modal or main) that comes immediately after the subject of the sentence.

Ought to

It is usually claimed that the meaning of ought to is the same as should whether it refers to giving advice or making a logical deduction. So, to most native speakers the following sentences with ought to and should feel the same:

• You ought to see a doctor.
• You should see a doctor.
• They ought to have got back home by now.
• They should have got back home by now.

In practice, most speakers tend to prefer should for negatives and questions because the ought to and oughtn't ... to forms can sound rather clumsy and awkward.

• Ought you to be doing that?
• They oughtn't to (ought not to) do that.
• Oughtn't we to leave now?

Meanings of modal verbs

The main function of modal verbs is to allow the speaker or writer to express their opinion of, or their attitude to, a proposition. These attitudes can cover a wide range of possibilities including obligation, asking for and giving permission, disapproval, advising, logical deduction, ability, possibility, necessity, absence of necessity and so on. The problem with each modal verb is that it can have more that one meaning and the interpretation of a particular modal will depend heavily on the context in which it is being used. The following examples should help to illustrate this point.

• It might take more than a week. (possibility)
• You might have told me about it! (showing disapproval)
• He must take his medicine three times a day. (obligation)
• He must be French. (logical deduction)
• I can't lift that suitcase by myself. (ability)
• That can't be the right answer. (logical deduction)
• May I look at the questions now? (asking for permission)
• They say it may snow tomorrow. (possibility)

You probably also noticed from the examples that notions like permission and possibility can be expressed using different modal verbs - this, of course, only serves to complicate matters further since one modal verb can have more that one meaning, and one meaning can be expressed by more than one modal verb. In the space that we have available here it would be impossible to cover all the meanings of each of the modals, so as examples we will look at some of the ways that obligation and logical deduction can be expressed.

Obligation

The two main modals here are must and have to. The difference between them is usually given as follows: must is used to express an internal obligation that is imposed by the speaker, while have to refers to rules and regulations that are imposed from outside the speaker. Again, as with many points of grammar this is only intended as a rough guide.
To express a lack of obligation we cannot just automatically add not to the modal verbs without thinking more carefully about it first. How do you feel about the following sentences for instance?

• He must sing loudly.
• He mustn't sing loudly.

In the first sentence you would probably agree that this is obligation originating from, say, a teacher or someone with authority. The second sentence, however, does not express a lack of obligation but a prohibition to do something. The form that we use to express a lack of obligation could be one of the following:

• He doesn't have to get up early.
• He doesn't need to get up early.

This lack of balance in the use of modals can cause many problems for people who are learning English since it is quite illogical.

Logical deduction

This is another area of modal use that is fraught with difficulties for reasons similar to those just discussed above. Look at the following sentences:
The telephone rings:

• That'll be Frank.
• That must be Frank.
• That should be Frank.
• That could be Frank.
• That might be Frank.
• That may be Frank.

The modal verbs used here have been listed in what many consider to be the order of likelihood of something being true. You may or may not agree with this listing, but it gives you some idea of some of the choices available for drawing logical conclusions from situations. If we look at the negatives of these sentences, however, you can see just how much more complex it can become:

• That won't be Frank.
• That mustn't be Frank.
  (To use musn't in this way as logical deduction is incorrect; we use can't instead.)
• That shouldn't be Frank.
• That couldn't be Frank.
• That mightn't be Frank.

Many of these sentences now denote completely different attitudes to the situation and you may even agree that some of them are either not English or are only marginally acceptable. The sentence which has probably moved furthest from its original intention is the second one (mustn't) which sounds very odd. In fact, the negative of must when we talking about deduction is can't - one more example of how complicated and counter-intuitive the system of English modals can be.

Past time with modal

We noted earlier that the pure modals do not change to show tense. Most of these modals do in fact have either present or future reference, but sometimes we need to refer back to the past. With the semi-modals there is little problem, but how can we do this for pure modal verbs? You may have picked up from some of the previous examples that one way to do this is to insert have immediately after the pure modal. But this is not always the case since can has its own past tense could when it refers to general ability. Some examples should help:

• I can speak German.
• I could speak German when I was seven years old.
• You should see this film.
• You should have seen this film.
• Indonesia must be hot.
• Indonesia must have been hot.
• He could find his wallet.
• He could have found his wallet

exercises

1. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge. You..........buy any
2. It's a hospital. You.......smoke
3. He had been working for more than 11 hours. He.......be tired after such hard work. He....... prefer to get some rest. 
4. i......speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Morocco. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I..........just say a few things in the language. 
5.  The teacher said we........ read this book for our own pleasure as it is optional. But we........read it if we don't want to.

answer

1. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge. You needn't  buy any.
2. It's a hospital. You mustn't smoke.
3. He had been working for more than 11 hours. He must be tired after such haed work. He may prefer to get some rest.
4. I could speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Morocco. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I can just say a few things in the language.
5. The teacher said we can read this book for our own pleasure as it is optional. But we can read it if we don't want to.

 sources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_verb
https://www.tesol-direct.com/guide-to-english-grammar/modal-auxiliary-verbs 
http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-exercise-modals.php